Investigating the “Glass Ceiling” Phenomenon: An Empirical Study of Actual Promotions to Top Management

Abstract

Although a “glass ceiling” is said to keep women from the top management levels of organizations, no research has investigated actual decisions about promotions to such positions. This study examined promotion decisions for U.S. federal government Senior Executive Service positions in a cabinet-level department. Contrary to hypotheses, the job-irrelevant variable of gender worked to women's advantage, both directly and indirectly, through job-relevant variables. However, an applicant's employment in the hiring department had the greatest effect on promotion decisions.